What is Oxytocin?

Oxytocin also has an antidiuretic action, but it is weaker in this respect than ADH. In addition, it can cause contractions of the smooth muscles in the uterine wall. 

This hormone is released near the end of pregnancy and may play a role in childbirth by stimulating uterine contractions. 

The mechanism that triggers the release of oxytocin is not clearly understood. It is known, however, that the uterus becomes more and more sensitive to oxytocin's effects during pregnancy. 

Also, it is believed that stretching of liter me and vaginal tissues late in pregnancy, caused by the growing fetus, may initiate nerve impulses to the hypothalamus. 

The hypothalamus may then signal the posterior lobe to release oxytocin, which in turn, enhances uterine wall contractions during labor. 

Oxytocin also has an effect upon the breasts, causing contractions in certain cells associated with milk-producing glands and their ducts. 

In lactating breasts, this action forces liquid from the milk glands into the milk ducts and causes the milk to be ejected from the breasts—an effect that is necessary before milk can be removed by sucking.

Sucking the nipple of a breast initiates nerve impulses that travel to the mother's hypothalamus. The hypothalamus responds by signaling the posterior lobe to release oxytocin, which in turn stimulates the release of milk. Thus, milk is normally not ejected from the milk glands and ducts until it is needed. 

Oxytocin has no established function in males. 

If the uterus is not contracting sufficiently to expel a fully developed fetus, commercial preparations of oxytocin are sometimes used to stimulate uterine contractions. Such preparations are often administered to the mother following childbirth to ensure that the uterine muscles contract enough to squeeze broken blood vessels closed, minimizing the danger of hemorrhage.

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HARM REDUCTION

Drugs of abuse are smoked, snorted, consumed orally or injected. Injecting drug users (IDUs) often share needles and syringes and infections spread through them. If a member of the group of addicts is HIV positive, the infection spreads to others through needles and syringes. IDUs, therefore, harm themselves in two ways - because of drug and because of the infection. Hard core IDUs are isolated and do not lead their normal lives. 

Many other IDUs are not fully cut off from the normal life and lead sexually active lives. Such IDUs form the bridge population between the drug injecting and general population and pass the HIV to their non-drug using sex partners and through them to others. Thus, unlike the effect of drug itself, the drug-driven HIV spreads far beyond the drug using population and harms them.

1. There are two schools of thought on how to deal with IDUs - one which believes in the ‘abstinence only’ approach and the other which advocates ‘harm reduction’ approach. Those who advocate 'abstinence only' approach believe that if an IDU should be saved from infections, the only option is to de-addict him. 

In contrast, advocates of ‘harm reduction’ approach argue that if the IDU cannot be de-addicted he should at least be saved from infections by helping him abuse drugs safely. There are strong advocates of both schools of thought and even nations are divided between the two approaches. There are several techniques of harm reduction such as:

i) Setting up shooting galleries where the addict is provided clean needles and syringes and good quality drug so that he can sit and inject without fear of effect of either infected needles and syringes or impure drug.

ii) Encouraging the addict to smoke instead of injecting, say, heroin.

iii) Needle syringe exchange programmes in which the addict is provided clean needles and syringes to inject but not the drugs;

iv) Oral substitution in which the IDU is supplied buprenorphine or methadone and persuaded to abuse them orally instead of injecting heroin or other drugs.

2. Our policy will be to allow only (iii) and (iv) above but not (i) and (ii). Injecting drug users will, as far as possible, be weaned from the drugs and not encouraged to sustain their habit by abusing drugs safely. However, addicts do not always come forward for de-addiction. Hence, if a strict 'abstinence only' approach is followed, a large number of addicts remain outside the services provided to addict population. Hard-core injecting drug users will be less willing to be de-addicted than to switch to, say oral substitution or use clean needles and syringes to shoot. On the other hand, if drugs for oral consumption or drug paraphernalia (such as syringes) are distributed freely on the streets, it will be seen as an official sanction and patronage to drug addiction and can promote drug addiction. If any NGO or person is allowed to promote ‘harm reduction’, there is a great risk of it being used as a cover to actually push drugs or promote them. Hence, harm reduction will be allowed only as a step towards de-addiction and not otherwise. Further, it should be practiced only by centres set up, supported by or recognized by the Central or the concerned State Government.

3. Injecting drug use is also a problem in many prisons. Some advocate harm reduction methods even in prison settings. However, considering that prison settings are completely regulated, it does not stand to reason to allow prison inmates who smuggle in and abuse drugs the benefit of getting clean needles and syringes or oral substitutes so that they can sustain their addiction and abuse drugs safely. Hence, IDUs among the inmates of prisons shall be compulsorily de-addicted and they shall not be given supplied clean needles and syringes and allowed to inject drugs. They shall also not be supplied oral buprenorphine or methadone for abuse as substitutes.

4. Opinion is divided among experts regarding the choice of drug to be used for oral substitution. While some prefer buprenorphine others prefer methadone. Thus, the appropriate policy will be to promote use of the drugs which can wean the addict away the fastest while discouraging drugs which will have to be given forever. A committee of experts will be constituted by the Department of Revenue in consultation with the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare and the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment to examine which drugs should be allowed for oral substitution based on this principle. If more than one drug is allowed for oral substitution, it is for the doctor or the centre to decide which drug to use in any given case.

5. In view of the above, the approach towards harm reduction will be as follows:

a) Drug addicts including injecting drug users (IDUs) will be identified and treated and their drug-using habit will not be supported or incentivised.

b) However, in cases where it is not possible to convince an IDU to undergo de-addiction, as a first step, clean needles and syringes or oral substitution may be provided to him.

c) Harm reduction techniques as indicated in (b) above may be practiced only by hospitals or centres set up or supported by or recognized by the Central Government or any State Government.

d) If anyone or any organisation other than those indicated in (c) above distributes needles and syringes or drugs for oral consumption to addicts, it shall be treated as abetting consumption of drugs and such person or organisation will be treated accordingly under the NDPS Act, 1985.

e) The centres indicated in (c) above promoting ‘harm reduction’ shall maintain records of each of the addicts and shall switch them to de-addiction as soon as possible preferably within one year but in no case later than two years.

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LABORATORIES for narcotic substances

The NDPS Act, 1985 spreads the network of enforcement far and wide by enabling the Central Government and the State Governments to empower any of their officers to enforce it. Hence, we have a large number of agencies seizing drugs in the country. 

Although the total number of seizures in the country (about 20,000 per year) is not very large compared to the size and population of the country, these seizures are made by several agencies in several parts of the country. Several forensic labs in the country test these samples. 

These are the Central Revenue Chemical Laboratory (CRCL), the Central Forensic Science Laboratories (CFSL) and the State Forensic Laboratories (FSL) of each State. Successful prosecution of offenders hinges on the quality of test reports. 

Each of the seized samples has to be tested quickly, precisely and accurately as the test report forms the basis for trial of the accused. On the other hand, if the seized substance is not a drug, a quick and accurate report helps exonerate those who are arrested but against whom there is no evidence.

1. The Government of India shall continuously build the capacities of the personnel working in the forensic labs in the country and improve the quality of their equipment so as to get in the shortest possible time precise and accurate test reports which can withstand the legal scrutiny.

2. In order to achieve the above objective, one nodal national drug testing laboratory will be identified which shall, in addition to testing samples that it receives, be responsible for the following:

a) Developing/ documenting/ prescribing standard testing protocols for each narcotic drug, psychotropic substance and precursor and any other related tests.

b) Developing/ documenting/ prescribing standard methods for testing samples of blood, urine, etc. to confirm consumption of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances by any person.

c) Developing advanced forensic testing methods such as impurity profiling.

d) Developing standardized forms of reporting which can withstand legal scrutiny.

e) Publishing and disseminating manuals on the above to all the forensic science labs in the country.

f) Identifying the basic minimum equipment required to conduct tests to determine the nature and purity of any narcotic drug, psychotropic substance or precursor.

g) Identify the gaps between the equipment that is required and that which is available in each of the labs.

h) Make recommendations on the equipment required to strengthen each laboratory.

i) Conduct training programmes for the personnel working in various forensic laboratories in the country.

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Introduction of narcotic act

Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances have several medical and scientific uses. However, they can be and are also abused and trafficked. India's approach towards Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances is enshrined in Article 47 of the Constitution of India which mandates that the ‘State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health’. The same principle of preventing use of drugs except for medicinal use was also adopted in the three international conventions on drug related matters, viz., Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971 and the UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988. India has signed and ratified these three conventions. India’s commitment to prevention of drug abuse and trafficking predates the coming into force of the three conventions.

2. The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985 was framed taking into account India’s obligations under the three UN drug Conventions as well as Article 47 of the Constitution mentioned in para 1 above. This Act prohibits, except for medical or scientific purposes, the manufacture, production, trade, use, etc. of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances.

3. The Governments’ policy has thus been to promote their use for medical and scientific purposes while preventing their diversion from licit sources, and prohibiting illicit traffic and abuse. Unlike the earlier Opium Acts and the Dangerous Drugs Act which it replaced, the NDPS Act has given the power of enforcement to various central and state law enforcement agencies, thus spreading the net of law enforcement far and wide. The NDPS Act It is also possible for the central and State Governments to notify any new class of officers of any department to enforce.

4. The NDPS Act divides the powers and responsibility of regulation of licit activities. Section 9 of the Act has listed various activities which the Central Government can, by rules, regulate while section 10 lists various activities which the State Governments can, by rules, regulate. Thus, we have NDPS Rules of the Central Government and the State NDPS Rules framed by each State Government under the same Act. These are enforced by the Central or concerned State Government.

5. The NDPS Act has created statutory authorities such as the Narcotics Commissioner (Section 5), the Competent Authority (Section 68D) and the Administrator (Section 68G). The organization headed by the Narcotics Commissioner is known as the Central Bureau of Narcotics (CBN). Another authority called the Narcotics Control Bureau was created through a notification under Section 4 of the Act. Each of these authorities has specified functions.

6. Government business is divided in the Central Government as per the Allocation of Business Rules. As per these Rules, the NDPS Act is administered by the Ministry of Finance, Department of Revenue. However, matters pertaining to Drug Demand Reduction are handled by the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment (MSJE). MSJE supports various NGOs involved in Drug Demand Reduction. Ministry of Health, Government of India, which is responsible for all health issues, runs several drug de-addiction centres in the Government hospitals across the country. The Narcotics Control Bureau, under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), coordinates actions by various functionaries (Central and State) under the NDPS Act.

7. The State Governments also have their own Health Departments and Social Welfare Departments each of which has its own set of activities relating to Drug Demand Reduction.

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CULTIVATION OF OPIUM POPPY FOR PRODUCTION OF POPPY SEEDS AND IMPORT OF POPPY SEEDS

1. Seeds of Papaver sominiferum are called the poppy seeds while the latex which oozes out and dries is called the opium gum. Opium gum is the source of several alkaloids and drugs of abuse while poppy seeds are not narcotic and are used as a condiment in Indian cooking. The demand for poppy seeds in India is much higher than the poppy seeds obtained as a by-product of legally cultivated opium poppy crop and hence, there is always a demand-supply gap for poppy seeds which is currently being met through imports. Some countries grow low alkaloid varieties of the plant to produce only poppy seeds. The poppy straw is destroyed. In the long run, such an approach is required in India to produce sufficient poppy seeds to meet the country’s requirement.

2. Government of India will encourage research and development of low alkaloid or alkaloid-free varieties of opium poppy which can be used exclusively for production of poppy seeds. The Government of India will also encourage trials and multiplication of seeds of low alkaloid varieties of opium poppy available in other countries. Once established and tested methods to distinguish the plants to be used for production of poppy seeds only from the plants used for production of opium are available, the Government may encourage cultivation of low alkaloid or alkaloid-free varieties of opium poppy exclusively for production of poppy seeds so as to achieve self-sufficiency and also endeavour to export poppy seeds. However, the permission to cultivate alkaloid free variety will be considered only if such variety is adequately tested and has different identifiable signatures so as to distinguish it from the varieties used for extraction of opium and or production of CPS.

3. Import of poppy seeds will continue till self-sufficiency is achieved. The policy is to allow import of poppy seeds from any country provided it has originated in any of the countries authorised internationally to grow opium poppy for export and that it has been legitimately cultivated. No import will be allowed from countries where opium poppy is not legitimately cultivated. All contracts for import of poppy seeds will be compulsorily registered with the Narcotics Commissioner. Before registering such contracts, the Narcotics Commissioner shall satisfy that the country from which the poppy seeds are proposed to be imported legally cultivates opium poppy and can produce the quantity of seeds which are sought to be imported.

4. Poppy seeds are also used in some countries to produce poppy seed oil. Government of India will also encourage production of poppy seed oil for use in India and for export.

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USE AND DESTRUCTION OF POPPY STRAW

1. As per the NDPS Act, poppy straw means 'all parts of the plant of opium poppy except seeds'. However, morphine is mainly present only in the husk of the pod and approximately five centimetres of the upper stem. 

After extraction of the juice, the husk of the pod still contains a very small portion of the alkaloids and if consumed in sufficient quantity, this husk will give an intoxicating effect. After extracting the opium gum, farmers break the pods and separate the seeds and sell them. The husk of the pods is called poppy straw. 

Section 10 of the NDPS Act empowers the State Government to permit and regulate, transport, sale, use, etc. of poppy straw. This power of the State Governments is subject to the restriction under Section 8 by which no narcotic drug or psychotropic substance can be used except for medical or scientific purposes. 

The State Governments may fix the minimum price which the licenced buyer should pay to the farmers for the poppy straw. The State Governments shall follow the following principles while licencing trade, use, etc. of poppy straw:

(a) Each State which licences any activity related to poppy straw shall designate a nodal officer to deal with all matters pertaining to poppy straw.

(b) All existing addicts of poppy straw will be registered for proper medical care;

(c) On the basis of the registrations and the quantities declared by the addicts and after consulting medical and other experts, the nodal officer shall determine the total quantity of poppy straw for each addict and the entire State.

(d) The quantity of poppy straw to be provided to the addicts should be progressively reduced so as to ensure that after a certain period of time, say, three years from the date of announcement of this policy, there are no addicts requiring poppy straw. After this no poppy straw will be allowed to be used for de-addiction and it shall only be ploughed back as per procedure in (h) below, under the supervision of Narcotics Commissioner.

(e) Stringent conditions should be imposed for supply of poppy straw to addicts so as to ensure that they are in accordance with NDPS Act/ Rules framed thereunder.

(f) The licences issued for purchase and sale of poppy straw, etc. shall specify the quantity that can be purchased or sold.

(g) The total quantity of poppy straw licenced to be purchased and sold in the State shall not exceed the total medical requirement of drug addicts and any scientific requirement of poppy straw.

(h) All poppy straw which remain un-utilised shall be ploughed back into the field under the supervision of the nodal officer who shall issue a certificate to the Narcotics Commissioner that the entire quantity of unutilised poppy straw has been ploughed back under his / her supervision.

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ILLEGAL CULTIVATION of opium or other narcotic substance

ROLE OF THE STATE AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENTS

1. Illegal cultivation of opium poppy (Papaver sominiferum) and cannabis (Cannabis sativa) are offences under the NDPS Act. Anyone cultivating opium poppy without a licence is liable for punishment under Section 18 while anyone cultivating cannabis is liable under Section 20. As per Section 44, all officers of State and Central Governments who are empowered under Section 41, 42 or 43 shall have the power of entry, search, seizure and arrest in relation to offences of illegal cultivation. Any Metropolitan Magistrate, Judicial Magistrate of first class or any Magistrate empowered in this behalf by the State Government or any officer of Gazetted rank empowered under section 42 may attach any opium poppy, cannabis or coca plant which, he has reason to believe, is illegally cultivated and while doing so, may pass such order as he thinks fit, including an order to destroy the crop (Section 48).

2. The land holder has an obligation under section 46 to give information of illegal cultivation in his land to any officer of the police or of any department mentioned in section 42 and any land holder who knowingly neglects to give such information shall be liable to punishment. This provision of the NDPS Act is applicable equally to officers of the Government, when such illicit cultivation occurs on land owned by the Government. Every officer of the Government and every panch, sarpanch and other village officer of whatever description has an obligation under section 47 to give immediate information of illegal cultivation to any officer of the Police or of any of the departments mentioned in section 42 when it comes to his knowledge and any officer of the Government, panch or sarpanch and other village officer who neglects to give such information shall be liable to punishment regarding illegal cultivation.

3. Despite these legal provisions, instances of illegal cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis have been noticed. The Government of India considers such illegal cultivation as a matter of serious concern. The Central and State Governments will continue to work together to combat this problem and issue directions to all officers under their control to discharge their responsibility under Section 47 of the NDPS Act. The Central Government and each State Government shall designate one or more nodal officers to whom the officers who come to know of any illegal cultivation shall report. They shall publicise widely the names and contact details of the nodal officers so that not only the officers, panches, sarpanches and land holders but even general public can provide information about illicit cultivation. The Central and State Governments shall follow a policy of zero tolerance and take severest possible action against anyone involved in illicit cultivation. The NCB and CBN and concerned State Governments shall also prosecute officials under their respective control who violate Section 47 of the NDPS Act.

4. The overall responsibility of tackling the problem of illicit cultivation shall lie with the Central Government. The Central Economic Intelligence Bureau (CEIB) will vigorously continue Satellite Surveys of illicit opium poppy cultivation and will share the images with the NCB and CBN. The NCB, in coordination with the CBN and State authorities, shall carry out destruction operations. The responsibility of collecting field intelligence and destroying illegal cultivation and arresting and prosecuting the offenders shall lie primarily with the State Governments. The State Governments shall also render all necessary help and security to any central drug law enforcement agency in their illicit crop destruction operations. At the field level, as far as possible, joint operations between the central and State Governments shall be conducted to identify and destroy illicit opium poppy and cannabis crops.

ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT

5. Alternative development is a method of weaning away farmers who have been traditionally cultivating opium poppy illegally and their livelihood depends entirely on such cultivation. In such places, mere enforcement and crop destruction will not work. Farmers should be trained in and helped to develop alternative means of livelihood. In some countries of the Golden Triangle such as Laos and Thailand, alternative development programmes have been hugely successful. However, alternative development programmes require large infusion of funds as the entire sustenance of the local population depends on it. Secondly, it involves changing the lifestyle of the local population and hence takes a fairly long time. Alternative development programmes to have effect and will require continuous funding for over such a long period.

6. The two key pre-requisites to justify an alternative development programme are (i) the farmers must be dependent on the illicit cultivation for their survival; and (ii) it must have been their traditional practice and the farmers do not know of any other way of survival. If these two aspects are not considered, alternative development programmes can be counterproductive with the Government rewarding regions where farmers started illegal cultivation to make large profits quickly. This, in turn, can be an incentive to other regions and communities and their leaders to start illegal cultivation so as to get the ‘status of illegal cultivating region’ so as to get more funds to their region. In India, but for a few isolated pockets, illegal cultivation of opium poppy or cannabis has not been the tradition nor are the local populations completely dependent on it for survival. Often, illegal cultivation is just a means of earning easy money.

7. Our policy towards alternative development will be as follows:

a) The primary means of tackling illegal cultivation will be the destruction of the crop and prosecution of the offenders under the NDPS Act.

b) If there are pockets where illegal cultivation has been a long tradition and the survival of the local population depends entirely on it, such areas will be identified through mutual consultations between the Central Government (Department of Revenue) the NCB and the concerned State Governments after a careful study.

c) Once the areas have been identified in a State as in (b) above, no new areas will be added to the list as new areas cannot suddenly become traditional illegal cultivating areas.

d) Alternative development programmes may be taken up in the areas identified as in (b) above after due consideration and once the programme is commenced in an area, it will be continued till the local population is completely weaned away from illegal cultivation.

e) Any alternative development programme will be coordinated by the NCB.

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MANUFACTURE OF NARCOTIC DRUGS

1. Narcotic drugs are of two kinds- natural and synthetic. Natural narcotic drugs of great medical use such as morphine, codeine and thebaine are produced from opium. Synthetic narcotic drugs are manufactured in factories and do not need any plant products as raw material. Thus, the manufacture of natural narcotic drugs indirectly affects the demand for opium and the area in which farmers should be allowed to cultivate opium. Hence, sudden change in production levels of natural narcotic drugs should be avoided to cause least difficulties to the farmers. India is one of the few countries that are internationally permitted to grow opium and successive resolutions of the UN Economic and Social Council require India (and other producing countries) to maintain a balance between demand and supply. Thus, on the one hand, India shares with other opium poppy growing countries the responsibility of ensuring that there is adequate supply of opium and opiates in the world and on the other has the responsibility to avoid excessive accumulation of stocks.

2. The policy with reference to manufacture and use of natural narcotic drugs, their salts and preparations, to the extent they are controlled, will be as follows:

a) Alkaloids of opium will be produced in the most efficient and cost-effective manner in the country including through involvement of private sector.

b) Maximum possible value addition within the country will be promoted through conversion of alkaloids into pharmaceutical preparations, use of alkaloids to produce other value added drugs and other similar measures, to the extent that they are consistent with the requirement of public interest and is in consonance with India’s obligations under International treaties, conventions or protocols.

c) Efforts will be made to increase the total income of cultivators of opium poppy.

d) Every effort will be made to fully meet Indian and global needs for opiates, their derivatives and preparations.

e) Production and trade of opiates will be strictly regulated with a view to prevent and minimize the scope for diversions.

3. Manufacture of synthetic narcotic drugs, their salts and preparations, to the extent they are controlled, will be licensed by the Narcotics Commissioner subject to the INCB approved estimate of each such drug for the year.

4. India is one of the largest manufacturers and exporters of pharmaceuticals in the world. Hence, it has an ethical obligation to contribute to the medical supply of narcotic drugs in the world. Subject to the regulations of the INCB, manufacture as well as export of narcotic drugs and their preparations shall be encouraged as far as possible.

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TRADE IN NARCOTIC DRUGS

1. The Chief Controller of Factories, New Delhi shall ensure adequate and uninterrupted supply of morphine, codeine, thebaine and their salts to the users in India, in particular of codeine phosphate which is consumed in quantities far in excess of its domestic production. The likely demand and estimated production within the country should be assessed well in advance of the commencement of the year and steps taken to ensure that the demand supply gap is adequately met though import.

2. Sale, transport, use and consumption of narcotic drugs is regulated by the State Governments under the State NDPS Rules framed under the NDPS Act. Excessive regulations and cumbersome procedures in many States have discouraged the doctors from prescribing narcotic drugs such as morphine and chemists from stocking them. Morphine, a derivative of opium, is known to be the best analgesic and which alone will relieve extremely excruciating pain such as the pain of a terminally ill cancer patient or of a victim of gunshot. As a result of the procedures, medical use of morphine has been extremely low with the result that tens of thousands of patients in India suffer from avoidable pain. 

India, which has one-sixth of the humanity, uses only one-thousandth of the morphine consumed in the world. The State Governments will take effective steps to simplify the procedures for use of morphine and other opioids and the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare will sensitise doctors and pharmacies to the need to prescribe and stock respectively such preparations. A course on palliative care shall be considered for inclusion in the curriculum of undergraduate medical students. State Governments shall establish and / or recognize palliative care centres where patients will be provided palliative care. In each District there should be at least two such palliative care centres. 

State Government shall establish procedure to ensure hassle free supply of morphine & other opioids in adequate quantity to these centres. Guidelines of WHO in this regard will be studied and adopted to extent possible, to maintain the balance between the need to make available opioids for palliative care and pain relief and preventing their diversion for abuse.

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What is ergosterol

Ergosterol occurs in plants. it is also found as a structural constituent of membranes in yeast and fungi.

Ergosterol in an important precursor for vitamin D.

Structure of Ergosterol

When exposed to light the ring B of ergosterol opens and it is converted to ergocalciferol, a compound containing vitamin D  activity.

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what is Quality control in biochemistry

Quality control in biochemistry laboratory refers to the reliability of investigative service.

Quality control comprise of four interrelated factors namely precision, accuracy, specificity and sensitivity.  

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what is precision

Precision refers to the reproducibilty of the result when the same sample is analysed on different occasions (replicate measurements) by the same person.

for instance, the precision is good, if the blood glucose level is 78, 80 and 82 mg/dl on replicates.  

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what is accuracy

Accuracy means the closeness of the estimated result to the true value for example - if true blood urea level is 50mg/dl, the laboratory reporting 45mg/dl is more accurate than the one reporting 35mg/dl.

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what is specificity

Specificity refers to the ability of the analytical method to specifically determine a particular parameter for example - glucose can be specifically estimated by enzymatic glucose oxidase method. 

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what is sensitivity

Sensitivity deals with the ability of a particular method to detect small amounts of the measured constituent.  

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what is Hay's test

Hay's test is based on the surface tension lowering property of bile salts (sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate).

Sulfer powder sprinkled on the surface of urine containing bile salts sinks to the bottom. 

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what is Petternkofer's test

Petternkofer's test is employed for the detection of bile salts.

The furfural derivatives (by reacting sugar with concentrated sulphuric acid) condense with bile salts to form a purple ring. 

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what is Eugenics

Eugenics is a science of improving human race based on genetics.

Improving the traits of plants and animals through breeding programmes has been in practice for centuries.

The object of eugenics is to limit the production of people who are unfit to live in the society.

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what is autoimmune diseases

Immune system is self-tolerant i.e. not responsive to cells or proteins of self.

sometimes, for various reason, the immune system fails to discriminate between self and non-self. As a consequence, the cells or tissues of the body are attacked. this phenomenon is referred as autoimmunity and the diseases are regarded as autoimmune diseases.

The antibodies produced to self molecules are regarded as autoantibodies. 

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Organ transplantation

The phenomenon of transfer of cells, tissues or organs from one site to another (in the same organism, autograft or from an organism allograft) is regarded as organ transplantation.

In case of humans, majority of organ transplantations are allograft (between two individuals). the term xenograft is used if tissue or organ are transferred from one species to another for example - from pig to man.

Organ transplantation is associated with immunological complications, and tissue rejection. this is because the host body responds to the transplanted tissue in a similar way as if it were an invading foreign organism.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is primarily involved in allograft rejection. this is due to the fact that MHC proteins are unique to each individual and the immune system responds promptly to foreign MHCs.

Organ transplantation between closely related family members is preferred, since their MHCs are also likely to be closed related. and major immunological complications can be averted.   

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